Researchers have devoted considerable attention to investigating gender differences in personality traits. While it is widely acknowledged that there are more similarities than differences between genders (Hyde, 2005), certain consistent variations have been identified. Men, in comparison to women, tend to exhibit higher levels of risk-taking behavior (Byrnes, Miller, & Schafer, 1999), sensation-seeking tendencies (Cross, Coping, & Campbell, 2011), self-esteem (Kling, Hyde, Showers, & Buswell, 1999), assertiveness, and lower nurturance (Feingold, 1994). Furthermore, men tend to have lower emotional intelligence (Joseph & Newman, 2010), lower neuroticism (Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008), and a preference for working with objects rather than people (Su, Rounds, & Armstrong, 2009).
The study of gender differences in narcissism has garnered significant interest among researchers. While neither gender welcomes the label of being more narcissistic than the other, scholars have observed that the symptoms associated with narcissistic personality often align closely with the masculine sex role stereotypes prevalent in our culture. These stereotypes encompass characteristics such as outward displays of anger, a strong desire for power, and an authoritative leadership style (Corry, Merritt, Mrug, & Pamp, 2008). Additionally, research findings from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions indicate a higher prevalence of lifetime narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) among men (7.7%) compared to women (4.8%) (Stinson et al., 2008). These findings provide indications that men tend to exhibit higher levels of narcissism than women.
The prevailing belief that men display higher levels of narcissism than women has generated considerable interest among researchers. However, the exact magnitude of this difference remains relatively underexplored. In this paper, we rely primarily on a comprehensive review conducted by Yan, Grijalva, Tay, Harms, Newman, Donnellan, and Robins (2014) to shed light on the specific traits exhibited by narcissistic women. By synthesizing findings from various studies, we aim to gain a deeper understanding of the complexities surrounding gender differences in narcissism and illuminate the distinct characteristics of a narcissistic woman. This research contributes to the broader understanding of narcissism and its manifestation within the female gender.
Narcissism as a Personality Attribute is Beyond the DSM-5 Definition
Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) is a psychological condition characterized by a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, a constant need for admiration, and a lack of empathy. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) provides a comprehensive definition of NPD in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—5 (DSM-5; APA, 2013). According to the DSM-5, individuals with NPD exhibit an exaggerated sense of self-importance and entitlement, often fantasizing about unlimited success, power, brilliance, or beauty. They require excessive admiration from others and have a notable lack of empathy, struggling to recognize or understand the feelings and needs of others (p. 645).
It is important to note that while the APA's definition of narcissism primarily focuses on diagnosing NPD as a clinical disorder, narcissism as a personality trait is not a personality disorder. While Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) represents an extreme and clinically significant manifestation of narcissism, narcissism, as a personality trait, exists to some degree in all individuals.
As a trait narcissism exists along a continuum. This continuum encompasses a wide range of manifestations, ranging from mild expressions of self-centeredness and self-enhancement to more severe and maladaptive forms of narcissism (Raskin & Hall, 1979; Samuel & Widiger, 2008).
Social and personality psychologists often investigate narcissism as a personality trait rather than as a specific personality disorder. They explore narcissism's impact on individuals' behavior, relationships, and overall functioning within various contexts. Researchers have developed scales and measures to assess narcissistic traits, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of narcissism as a multidimensional construct (Miller & Campbell, 2008).
A Review of Empirical Findings on Narcissism Across Genders
Initially, Freud (1914) posited that women exhibited higher levels of narcissism compared to men. He based this belief on the assumption that women were more focused on their physical appearance and tended to select romantic partners based on qualities they desired for themselves (Wink & Gough, 1990). However, empirical research has generally indicated a different pattern, suggesting that men tend to display higher levels of narcissism than women (Tschanz, Моrf, & Turner, 1998; Paulhus & Williams, 2002; Watson, Taylor, & Morris, 1987).
Nonetheless, findings regarding the gender differences in narcissism have been inconsistent. Some studies have reported minimal or near-zero gender differences in narcissism (Bizumic & Duckitt, 2008; Bleske-Rechek, Remiker, & Baker, 2008; Furnham, 2006; Jackson, Ervin, & Hodge, 1992). On the other hand, research has shown that males are up to 75% more likely to receive a diagnosis of Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) and tend to score higher on self-report measures of narcissism compared to females (Grijalva et al., 2014). As a result, the extent and magnitude of the gender difference in narcissism remain unclear.
Further research is needed to better understand the complexities of narcissism and its relationship to gender. It is important to consider potential cultural and societal influences that may impact the expression and measurement of narcissistic traits in men and women. By conducting more comprehensive and nuanced studies, researchers can provide a clearer picture of how narcissism manifests across genders and contribute to our understanding of the underlying factors that shape these differences.
The Multidimensional Traits of Narcissistic Women
Examining gender differences in the facets of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), a widely used measure of narcissism (Raskin & Terry, 1988), offers intriguing insights. The NPI has been instrumental in studying narcissism, with Cain and colleagues (2008) noting that 77% of narcissism studies in the field of social-personality psychology employ the NPI. While various scholars have proposed different interpretations of the NPI's facet structure, suggesting the existence of two to seven subcomponents (Ackerman et al., 2011; Corry et al., 2008; Emmons, 1984; Kubarych, Deary, & Austin, 2004; Raskin & Terry, 1988), the recently developed three-facet structure by Ackerman et al. (2011) shows promise.
The three facets in the Ackerman et al. (2011) structure are Exploitative/Entitlement (E/E), Leadership/Authority (L/A), and Grandiose/Exhibitionism (G/E). Although the authors did not explicitly report how these facets relate to gender, their work provides a foundation for exploring potential gender differences in narcissistic traits. To inform the discussion, theoretical perspectives and empirical findings derived from previous NPI facet structures will be considered.
While gender differences in narcissism have been a subject of considerable research, there is limited exploration specifically focusing on the traits of narcissistic women. The existing literature on narcissism primarily revolves around the general population and the traits exhibited by both men and women. Therefore, it becomes pertinent to delve into the characteristics and behaviors associated specifically with narcissistic women.
Behaviors of Narcissistic Women in the Exploitative/Entitlement Facet
The Exploitative/Entitlement (E/E) facet of narcissism stands out as having the strongest correlations with negative outcomes when compared to the other two facets. It is considered the most maladaptive aspect of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) and is associated with toxic behaviors such as aggression (Reidy, Zeichner, Foster, & Martinez, 2008), counterproductive work behavior (e.g., theft, sharing confidential company information, and harassing coworkers; Grijalva & Newman, 2014), deliberate cheating (Brown et al., 2009), and an unwillingness to forgive, insisting on repayment for perceived injustices (Exline, Baumeister, Bushman, Campbell, & Finkel, 2004). Example statements from the E/E facet include "I insist upon getting the respect that is due to me" and "I find it easy to manipulate people."
In a study by Tschanz et al. (1998) using Emmons' (1984) four-factor structure, gender differences on the NPI were investigated. It was hypothesized that women would score lower on the E/E facet due to the belief that "such displays might carry a greater possibility of negative social sanctions because they would violate stereotypical gender role expectancies for women" (p. 864). Consistent with Tschanz et al. (1998) and drawing on social role theory, it seems likely that women are more harshly judged for exhibiting behaviors associated with the E/E facet, such as demanding and arrogant behaviors (Rudman et al., 2012b).
Indeed, the E/E facet displays the largest gender difference, with men generally exhibiting higher levels of Exploitative/Entitlement than women. This raises the consideration that narcissistic women may engage in more socially approved behaviors compared to men, displaying less exploitative tendencies.
This observation highlights the potential impact of societal expectations and gender roles in shaping the expression of narcissistic traits. Women may face greater scrutiny and potential backlash when exhibiting assertive and entitled behaviors, which may lead them to temper certain aspects of their narcissistic tendencies.
Gender Disparities in Leadership and Authority Traits of Narcissism
The Leadership/Authority (L/A) facet of narcissism captures an individual's inclination to lead and their desire for authority and power. It is generally considered the most beneficial aspect of narcissism (Ackerman et al., 2011) due to its positive association with self-esteem (Trzesniewski et al., 2008; Watson & Biderman, 1993) and its negative correlations with neuroticism (Trzesniewski et al., 2008) and the discrepancy between one's actual and ideal self (Emmons, 1984). Sample statements from the L/A facet include "I would prefer to be a leader" and "I like having authority over people."
A gender difference in the L/A facet aligns with findings indicating that men are more motivated than women to pursue managerial positions (Eagly, Karau, Miner, & Johnson, 1994) and that men are more likely to emerge as leaders (Eagly & Karau, 1991). Leader stereotypes are often associated with qualities of agency and masculinity, creating a mismatch between leader stereotypes and societal expectations for women (Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011; Powell & Butterfield, 1979; Schein, 1973). As mentioned earlier, leadership ability is considered a normative trait for men, reflecting a widely held belief about how men should behave, whereas it is not as strongly prescribed for women (Rudman et al., 2012b, p. 168).
Research consistently demonstrates that men exhibit higher levels of Leadership/Authority traits compared to women. This gender difference reflects societal norms and expectations regarding leadership roles and aligns with broader cultural beliefs surrounding gender and leadership.
The Gender Paradox in Grandiose/Exhibitionism
The Grandiose/Exhibitionism (G/E) facet is the third component of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) structure proposed by Ackerman et al. (2011). It assesses traits such as vanity, self-absorption, a sense of superiority, and exhibitionistic tendencies. This facet reflects the self-centeredness and theatrical self-presentation often associated with narcissism (Ackerman et al., 2011). Sample items from the G/E facet include statements like "I like to display my body" and "I enjoy being the center of attention."
According to objectification theory, girls and women are socialized to place importance on their physical appearance due to continuous exposure to sexualized images and experiences of objectification (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Fredrickson et al., 1998). Additionally, research suggests that men tend to prioritize physical appearance more when selecting romantic partners compared to women (Feingold, 1990).
Considering that some G/E items focus on physical appearance, it is possible that women may score higher on these items. For example, studies have found that women endorse narcissistic items related to physical appearance, such as the desire to look perfect before going out and being upset if others do not notice their appearance (Buss & Chiodo, 1991).
However, the G/E facet does not solely revolve around physical appearance. Other G/E items, such as those indicating self-absorption and a desire to be the center of attention, may be inconsistent with the communal and other-focused self-identity typically associated with women. Therefore, while some G/E items may favor women, it is uncertain if there will be an overall gender difference in the G/E facet of narcissism.
In fact, research has revealed no significant gender differences in the G/E facet. This suggests that, on average, men and women exhibit similar levels of grandiose/exhibitionistic traits.
The Subtle Manifestations of Covert Narcissism in Women's Abusive Behaviors
In addition to the well-known form of narcissism discussed thus far, there exists a second, less commonly studied type of narcissism that is associated with traits like neuroticism and introversion. The concept of vulnerable narcissism has been described using different terms in the literature. Some researchers have referred to it as vulnerability-sensitivity (Wink, 1991), covert narcissism (Rose, 2002; Wink, 1991), hypersensitive narcissism (Hendin & Cheek, 1997), and vulnerable narcissism (Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010). For the purposes of this article, we will refer to it as vulnerable narcissism.
The concept of vulnerable narcissism is not new and has been observed for quite some time. Researchers and clinicians have noted that a subgroup of individuals high in narcissism exhibit emotional fluctuations, unlike others who display a more stable pattern of narcissistic traits (Kernberg, 1975, 1986; Kohut, 1977).
Gender differences in narcissism have been a topic of interest in both theoretical and empirical discussions. Previous studies have commonly categorized these differences into two main components: grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism. When it comes to vulnerable narcissism, research findings have shown either no significant gender differences or a higher prevalence among females. Several studies, such as those conducted by Besser and Priel (2010) and Miller et al. (2010), have reported gender neutrality in vulnerable narcissism. On the other hand, studies by Onofrei (2009), Pincus et al. (2009), and Wright, Lukowitsky, Pincus, and Conroy (2010) have found a higher proportion of females exhibiting vulnerable narcissistic traits.
One possible explanation for these observed gender differences in grandiose and vulnerable narcissism is the influence of gender-related norms associated with masculinity and femininity. According to the theoretical framework proposed by Grijalva et al. (2014), societal expectations and norms related to gender roles may contribute to the manifestation of narcissistic tendencies in different ways for males and females. This suggests that cultural and social factors play a role in shaping the expression of narcissism in individuals based on their gender.
It is interesting to note that in the context of intimate partner violence (IPV), only vulnerable narcissism was found to predict physical/sexual and psychological abuse among women. This finding has implications for our understanding of narcissism and the existing literature on IPV. Specifically, it suggests that women may exhibit narcissistic traits in ways that are more subtle and hidden compared to men.
When it comes to expressing narcissism, women tend to display more covert and indirect behaviors, such as devaluing themselves and hiding their true intentions. These behaviors may not be immediately recognized as narcissistic, particularly when it comes to exploiting their partners through both overt and covert means. This aligns with previous theories proposing that narcissistic females may employ discreet and indirect strategies to fulfill their self-worth (e.g., Campbell & Miller, 2012; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001; Valashjardi et al., 2019).
In contrast, grandiose features of narcissism may align with societal expectations and norms regarding men being more entitled and exploitative. However, the same pattern of behavior in females may be perceived as unconventional and deviating from socially accepted norms. This discrepancy in societal expectations could explain why vulnerable narcissism, rather than grandiose narcissism, emerged as a significant predictor of abuse perpetration in females.
The Impact of Societal Expectations on the Expression of Traits of Narcissist Woman
Research has consistently shown that gender differences can impact the measurement of negative affectivity. One specific aspect of negative affectivity that exhibits measurement bias across genders is stress reaction. Items such as feeling easily hurt, startled, or rattled are more likely to be endorsed by women than by men, regardless of their actual level of negative affectivity (Smith & Reise, 1998). This means that even when a man and a woman possess the same true level of negative affectivity, the woman will have higher scores on measures of negative affectivity compared to the man.
Measurement bias in negative affectivity items has often been attributed to the influence of group norms that shape different frames of reference for men and women (Riordan & Vandenberg, 1994). Smith and Reise (1998) suggest that the items exhibiting measurement bias in negative affectivity reflect emotional vulnerability and sensitivity, particularly in situations involving self-evaluation. They propose that gender differences in the endorsement of these items may additionally reflect the current cultural acceptability of men and women expressing such emotions.
Drawing from these theoretical arguments, it is plausible to consider that similar cultural processes could influence the endorsement of narcissism items by men and women, particularly for items that are less socially acceptable for women to express. Gender norms and societal expectations regarding narcissism may shape individuals' willingness to endorse certain items, leading to potential gender differences in their responses. For example, items that convey a sense of entitlement or arrogance may be more aligned with societal expectations of male behavior, while women may feel less comfortable endorsing such items due to the potential backlash or social disapproval they may face.
However, it is essential to emphasize that the finding of men being less likely to endorse items related to feeling easily hurt or emotionally vulnerable represents a measurement phenomenon specific to negative affectivity and does not reflect inherent gender differences in the underlying trait itself. It is important to differentiate between measurement bias and true gender differences in negative affectivity. Individuals of any gender can possess the same level of negative affectivity while displaying different mean responses to items due to measurement bias influenced by societal norms and expectations.
A Closer Look at Traits of Narcissistic Women
Narcissistic traits in women can vary, but they often include the following characteristics:
Trait: Exploitative/Entitlement (E/E)
Description:
Narcissistic women who exhibit the Exploitative/Entitlement trait display a strong sense of entitlement and a tendency to exploit others for personal gain. They believe they deserve special treatment and often manipulate people to meet their needs. This trait is associated with toxic behaviors such as aggression, counterproductive work behavior, deliberate cheating, and a refusal to forgive perceived injustices.
Trait: Leadership/Authority (L/A)
Description:
Narcissistic women with the Leadership/Authority trait possess a strong motivation to lead and a desire for power and authority. They aspire to be in leadership positions and enjoy having control over others. This trait is often correlated with high self-esteem and is less associated with negative outcomes compared to other facets of narcissism.
Trait: Grandiose/Exhibitionism (G/E)
Description:
Women with the Grandiose/Exhibitionism trait demonstrate vanity, self-absorption, superiority, and exhibitionistic tendencies. They seek attention and admiration, and may display their physical appearance or engage in attention-seeking behaviors. While some aspects of G/E may align with societal expectations for women related to physical appearance, other aspects, such as self-absorption, may challenge traditional gender norms.
Trait: Vulnerable Narcissism
Description:
Vulnerable narcissism is a less frequently studied form of narcissism associated with neuroticism and introversion. It is characterized by emotional variability and a hypersensitivity to criticism or rejection. This trait is often linked to feelings of insecurity and a fragile self-esteem. It has been observed that vulnerable narcissism may be more prevalent among women or display a gender-neutral pattern.
Trait: Negative Affectivity
Description:
Negative affectivity refers to the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as sadness, anxiety, and anger, more intensely and frequently than others. Women, on average, tend to endorse negative affectivity items more than men. However, it is important to note that this difference may be influenced by measurement bias and societal norms surrounding emotional expression, rather than reflecting true gender differences in the underlying trait itself.
In conclusion, our discussion highlighted several important aspects regarding narcissism and its potential gender differences. We explored various traits commonly associated with narcissistic women, such as Exploitative/Entitlement, Leadership/Authority, Grandiose/Exhibitionism, Vulnerable Narcissism, and Negative Affectivity.
While there may be some gender differences in the expression and prevalence of these traits, it is crucial to approach the topic with caution and avoid overgeneralizations. The literature suggests that societal norms and expectations related to gender roles play a significant role in shaping the manifestation and perception of narcissistic traits in women.
Societal norms often prescribe certain behaviors and qualities that are considered appropriate for women. These norms emphasize traits such as modesty, empathy, and nurturing behaviors, while discouraging assertiveness, self-promotion, and overt displays of power. Consequently, women with narcissistic traits may navigate a complex landscape where their behaviors and characteristics may deviate from traditional gender expectations. Women with narcissistic tendencies may employ more subtle and covert strategies to assert their self-worth, which aligns with societal expectations of femininity. This can involve strategies like devaluing themselves, hiding their true feelings of entitlement, or using indirect means to exploit others.